Applied Definition: Virtue Ethics Essay

1. In what ways did the historical context from which virtue ethics emerged shape its basic principles? Presocratics, regarded as the first philosophers, brought the term logos to philosophy (literal translation: ‘word’; also denotes ‘logic’, ‘argument’, ‘reason’. Aristotle’s concept of Virtue Ethics regards humans as rational animals, implying that ‘logos’ is purely a human trait. Known as Plato’s most gifted student, Aristotle disagreed with his teacher’s view that the â€Å"essence of reality lies in some abstract world of Forms or Ideas† (Brannigan, 2005:60). Aristotle’s point of view directly contrasts his teacher’s, stating that the â€Å"source of meaning comes from concrete, physical reality† (Brannigan, 2005:60). This direct contrast with Plato leads to Aristotle opening his own school, which he called the Lyceum. Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics is his literary formation of his ethical theories. Aristotle believes that ethics originate from real world experiences, that there is not a set of rules to apply to life that will mold us into ethical beings, but rather the â€Å"individual exists in relationship with others† (Brannigan, 2005:61). Thus, ethics is based upon how the individuals relate to each other and the cultivation of good character. How do we cultivate good character? Aristotle states we must fulfill our human nature. He tells us that all things existing in nature have their own specific end purpose, which he refers to as telos (Greek term for specific end). For example, an apple seed’s telos would be to grow into an apple tree and produce apples. Aristotle tells us that only humans are capable of using logos as a form of thought, and that all humans are, by nature, rational animals. Therefore, the human’s end purpose is to â€Å"fulfill our human nature as rational animals by properly exercising our reason† and he also asserts that, â€Å"only in this way can we be genuinely happy† (Brannigan, 2005:62). Furthermore, Aristotle states that all humans have one end goal – eudaimonia (Greek for happiness), and that happiness is an â€Å"intrinsic good†. Intrinsic good means that we seek happiness for the sake of being happy, and we do not seek happiness to obtain something else. In contrast, instrumental good are steps we take to achieve this intrinsic and ultimate good of happiness. For example, students take college courses to fulfill a requirement, gain understanding, and so on. Regardless of the reason, ultimately students take courses to achieve something, with another goal in mind, thus making it an instrumental good. All goods are instrumental, except happiness. Human excellence and telos can be acquired, â€Å"only when we realize our true natures as rational animals, when we properly exercise our reason throughout our lives† (Brannigan, 2005:62). Aristotle terms human excellence with a new name – virtue; genuine happiness is to live virtuously, and only by living virtuously can we attain happiness, and living virtuously requires making a habit of practicing virtue to cultivate good character. Therefore only those with good character can be truly happy. To live virtuously, we must avoid extremes and maintain a balance, which Aristotle terms as the â€Å"golden mean†. The â€Å"golden mean† is the balance between the extremes, and we must use rational thinking and reasoning in a balanced fashion. He distinguished two types of virtues: intellectual and moral. Intellectual virtues require us to use out reason in two ways, one practical and one philosophical. First, â€Å"we reason in order to live practically in our day-to-day lives, which requires us to live sensibly through practical reason† (Brannigan, 2005:64), which Aristotle terms phronesis. Second, â€Å"we reason for the purpose of discovering higher truths†¦ so that we may contemplate higher, more theoretical truths and principles such as the idea of the Good† (Brannigan, 2005:64). Moral virtues (which Aristotle termed ethike) focus on our behavior and how we live our lives, and are the focus of Aristotle’s ethics. Aristotle’s belief was that moral virtues only came about with habitual practice, the Greek word for habit is ethos, which shows the link with ethics. In conclusion, a summary of Aristotle’s ethical beliefs: the goal/aim is to cultivate good character, which can be achieved only through habitual practice of virtue (intellectual and moral), which will create the condition of virtue, thus making us virtuous persons. Repeated actions lead to a condition, which makes an action distinct from a condition, therefore meaning one virtuous act does not make a person virtuous. Rather, acts of virtue must be an ethos(or habit), so that virtuous acts become a sort of second-nature. These repeated acts of virtuous ethos lead to the condition of virtue, and the condition of virtue = good character, and vice versa. Since acts of virtue are not acts of virtue unless logic, reason, and rationalization are utilized to find the â€Å"golden mean† between two possible extremes, one cannot achieve their telos and/or ultimately the condition of happiness, without finding balance in every decision that presents itself and then acting upon this balanced decision. This creates the assumption of a natural link between who we are and what we do, between being and doing. However, doing the right thing simply because you are following a rule or guideline does not make a virtuous person, thus placing the emphasis of Aristotle’s ethics on being rather than doing, meaning that an honest person will tell the truth because this person’s character/being is honest. The reverse of this would be a dishonest person will be dishonest, or a dishonest person will tell the truth because societal rules/guidelines say it’s the virtuous decision – either way, a dishonest person’s being and character is still dishonest, regardless of whether this person tells the truth or not – one act of virtue does not equal a virtuous person. â€Å"Virtue then is a state of deliberate moral purpose, consisting in a mean relative to ourselves, the mean being determined by reason, or as a prudent man would determine it. † (Brannigan, 2005:88) 2. What would virtue ethics suggest should be done in response to the dilemma of the school child who was made to turn his shirt inside out? Why? Virtue ethics really focuses on â€Å"the golden mean†, which is achieved through rational and logical thinking. By avoiding extremes habitually when making decisions, â€Å"the golden mean† can be achieved, leading to a virtuous person, and ultimately happiness and telos; this is the only way to truly achieve the ultimate goal of happiness and virtue. Blindly following rules, without rationalization and an effort to avoid extremes, does not make a virtuous person or achieve â€Å"the golden mean†. Thus, being virtuous leads to virtuous and ethical actions, but not vice versa. In the case of the principal, a virtue ethicist would argue that the principal was merely following a rule, therefore the action was not virtuous. However, the principal also exhibited balance between extremes, by making the child turn the shirt inside out behind a tree; the principal could have made an extreme choice by either ignoring the child’s shirt (and the rule in place) and letting him/her wear this shirt through the rest of the school day (deficit), or by sending the child home for the day (or longer) as punishment for wearing a shirt that breaks the dress code. When you look at the parents actions and choices from a virtue ethicist’s point of view, they have missed â€Å"the golden mean† when making decisions. In regards to the choice of dressing their child in a University of Michigan shirt, a virtue ethicist would state that this decision showed ignorance (since they were provided with a student handbook, which has dress code guidelines), but only if they neglected to read rules that they were provided with. If they simply weren’t provided with such rules, they still exhibited ignorance, but not because of being ignorant. If they read these rules and opted not to follow them because they did not agree, then they should be applauded for not blindly following rules for the sake of following them. However, the decision to send their child to school in a shirt that breaks the rules could be argued as a balanced decision. The deficit decision would be sending the child in all Oklahoma college apparel, just to stay within the guidelines; the extreme would be sending their child in a completed University of Michigan football uniform. It is clear that the parents miss finding the â€Å"golden mean† when deciding how to express their feelings about the rule, by going to the extreme and bringing it to the media’s attention (they could have met with school boards, or even the principal, to try to compromise). They also are on the extreme side of things when they accept gifts from the university (who surely appreciated the attention brought by the media). 3. Using your own personal ethical beliefs, in what ways do you agree or disagree with the decision and the reasoning used to reach the decision in the above question? I agree with the final statements brought out by taking a virtue ethical perspective, such as the principal making a balanced choice when taking action about the shirt, the parents possibly being ignorant of the rule through personal neglect or neglect from the school, and the choices the parents made following the shirt issue being extreme. However, I do not necessarily agree with how these outcomes were achieved through this view. First, I agree that there is a balance that needs to be achieved (or atleast attempted to be achieved) in most of the decisions and actions we make daily, but I do not thing that non-ethical choices and actions are made because the person’s â€Å"being† is bad. I feel like good people can and do make ignorant, unethical, or bad choices; vice versa being true as well. While I believe that being and doing definitely shape each other, I do not feel that one is formed ultimately by the other. As far as what I feel should have been done in this situation, I agree with the principal’s decision. Maybe the code needs refined a little, but your 5 year old having to turn his/her shirt inside out is a much better option than your 5 year old getting shot because the shirt holds a different meaning to a gang member. In class, it was argued that the University of Michigan’s logo held no meaning to the local gangs, but that does not eliminate the possibility of the logo being mistaken for something else, or even influencing a gang we don’t know about. The possibility that your child’s safety is in question should be plenty enough reason for the parents to, at the very least, complain to the school board instead of the media. The fact that the parents brought the media into the situation, I feel, decreases the credibility of their complaint, especially since they ultimately prospered from the incident and the resulting media attention (game tickets, university apparel, and so on). If the principal had ignored the shirt, let the child wear it throughout the day, and then the child became the victim of gang-related violence because of his shirt, I’m sure the parents would hold a different view-point about the rule – and still end up bringing the issue to the media’s attention.

International Marketing of Ikea Essay

Table of Contents Table of Contents1 1. Executive Summary1 2. Introduction1 3. Internationalization2 4. Foreign Market Segmentation and Targeting3 5. Environmental Analysis5 5.1 SWOT Analysis6 5.2 Environmental Analysis of Host Country- China8 5.3 From the perspective of IKEA International Group10 6. International Marketing Objectives11 7. Foreign Market Entry Strategy11 8. Product/Service Mix Preparation14 8.1 Product adaptation14 8.2 Product publicity15 8.3 Product price15 8.4 New product development16 8.5 Market expansion16 8.6 Service Mix16 9. Conclusion17 Appendices18 1. Executive Summary This report emphasizes on the analysis of the overseas expansion of the global brand named IKEA, who has already built a competitive advantage in the international furniture competition. It has the largest part of market share and got huge success in Europe which leads it to expand to Asia and other market of the world. Analysis of all the environmental aspects in China shows that China is the best country to invest in, although there are still some weaknesses and threats exists. 2. Introduction IKEA is the world’s largest furniture retailer which founded in 1943. In 2009, the world’s leading marketing research organizations of Interbrand selected into â€Å"Global 100 Most Valuable Brands† list, the IKEA ranked 28th for about 12 billion U.S. dollars in brand value, which is constantly increasing. IKEA stores were founded in the most important shopping areas of 240 stores in Europe, the North America, Asia and Africa. IKEA’s success in the retail industry can be attributed to its vast experience in the retail market, product differentiation, and cost leadership. This report will analysis the international marketing strategy of IKEA as follows aspects: internationalization, foreign market segmentation and targeting, internal and external business environment based PEST and SWOT analysis, international objectives, foreign marketing enter strategy and product/service mix preparation. 3. Internationalization Internationalization appears when the company expands its R&D, production, selling and other business activities into globalization markets (Hollensen, 2004). IKEA group is the most internationalized retailing of furniture worldwide. Chairman Ingvar Kamprad opened his first furniture in 1943. He spent almost ten years on building and developing the brands from mail order business to furniture business in Swedish. In 50’s of last century, forced domestic counterparts extrusion, IKEA was forced to go abroad to find suppliers of raw materials, but to find low cost instead. This is the IKEA’s first globalization of production attempt. Since in 1953, the first abroad store was opened successfully in Danmark. Then IKEA rapidly expanded to the whole European region. With the success of global sourcing, In the early 70s, the Swedish furniture market was stagnant, IKEA naturally turn their attention to the international market. Then IKEA group began a huge globalization of market from that time. In the road of international expansion, IKEA Annual Report (2002) showed that Inter IKEA Systems B.V granted franchises as part of a detailed international expansion scheme. IKEA implemented the brand integration strategy, in order to form the absolute control of the brand. IKEA is not content with merely control of even the world’s largest furniture products channel, IKEA group would hope that their own brands and its own proprietary products can eventually cover the world. IKEA pioneered the â€Å"brand integration† model, which achieve the manufacturer brands and retail brands to fusion of commercial brands  perfectly. Based on this concept, IKEA has been insisted all products by their own personally designed and have the patent, each year more than 100 designers worked in the day and night to ensure that â€Å"all products, all of the patent† in order to achieve all the products are marked â€Å"Design and Quality, IKEA of Sweden† targets. So for IKEA is concerned, it didn’t have the so-called â€Å"upstream manufacturers† pressure, or any manufacturer could give it so-called â€Å"distribution chain management.† In terms of IKEA is the world’s only success of the organization to put up both channel management and product management, its â€Å"integrated brand strategy† is the large key to the successful integration of industrial chain. 4. Foreign Market Segmentation and Targeting Early in this year, IKEA has opened many stores and market was very mature in the Europe. Until 1985 IKEA decided to enter the North America market. Although it didn’t achieve success like experience across the Europe in the beginning of in the USA, IKEA has adopted adaptive strategies according to local actual situation. It got the finally success in the USA market. Forthwith it expended quickly in the Asia. IKEA has six areas in the world until now, which is Europe, North America, Middle East, Asia Pacific and Caribbean. At present, IKEA is developing the Asia market and existed markets have six countries. Three Asia countries are selected to penetrating and expanding by screening process as follows. IKEA had furniture market and wanted to expand in Singapore and China, In addition, Korea is very beneficial market for IKEA while not yet opened. Singapore is the developed country, but come under the world financial crisis and slump in global trade impact, this exceptionally o pen economy (exports of goods and services represent over 200% of GDP) GDP fell by 9.5% from the first quarter of 2008 to the first quarter of 2009(Appendix 1). Private consumption fell from 2008’s levels, which declined by 0.5%. In order to deal with weakness in private consumption, government expenditure accelerated to promote and enhance the public’s consumption of 8.3% (Appendix 2). Korea is also well-developed country in Asia. Despite the world economic deep impact on Korea, Korea staged a strong recovery in 2009. GDP grew by 0.2% in the year (Appendix 3). Weak private consumption rebounded before early 2009 (Appendix 4), which is the most obvious change in durable goods and services. Consumer  sentiment improved during the year. China, the economic rate and consumption rate are the highest over these Asia countries. GDP is forecast to grow by 9.6% in 2010. Growth will be stronger in the first half of 2010.China economic situation is superb (Appendix 5). Private consumption growth is forecast to speed up to 12% in 2010, from 9.0% in 2009, responding to rising incomes and improving consumer confidence (Appendix 6). Based on the above considerations, IKEA should consider expending Asia market. In my opinion, China is worth of investment. Because of large area and population, IKEA should open in all capital cities in China. From opened the first store in 1998, IKEA developed slowly in China. According to the IKEA Web site, China’s market identity is the largest supplier as a worth of 15 billion U.S. dollars market every year, not is the biggest sales market. Currently, IKEA has 350 suppliers in China, 21% of the world’s goods from China. Because of Chinese consumer awareness of its own position with IKEA dislocation, this is precisely an important factor of the slow expansion of IKEA in China. With the rise of local home chains, as well as foreign opponents’ attack, to maintain the position in the Chinese domestic m arket, IKEA must expand. Publicly available data, now IKEA hold home products market in China account for 43% of the share. To sum up, IKEA’s expansion and development is necessary and very beneficial in China. 5. Environmental Analysis IKEA International Group, a furniture group aims to provide customers with variety of good-looking& affordable home products worldwide, is said to be an miracle of business in the last century. Now it has over 200 retail stores in over 30 countries. It needs considerable of analysis before entering foreign markets. 5.1 SWOT Analysis Strengths of IKEA †¢ Well known in China. Chinese consumers knew IKEA as a big brand before it entered China market, so this helps IKEA to enter Chinese market more smoothly. †¢ Highly reputation. As IKEA is a globally brand, Chinese customers regard it more reliable than other furniture companies. †¢ Stable relationship. IKEA could get materials at a reasonable price due to the stable relationships that between IKEA and its suppliers. †¢ Plate packing. By using plate packing, IKEA could reduce cost from transportation and storage. †¢ Environmental protective and healthy material for customers. What material IKEA choose are both environmental protective and healthy, which enable customers use IKEA products without trepidation. Weaknesses of IKEA †¢ Much reliant on Europe Market. 82% IKEA stores located in this region so IKEA will have difficulties to face the Asia market. (Ikea United Kingdom (2005) www.ikea.co.uk Accessed 23rd Nov 2005) †¢ Unreasonable rout design. When shopping in IKEA you have to walk along the only aisle IKEA set and will get no way to go backward. What’s more, you still have to go along the aisle till the item you want although you have decided what to buy. This may cost customers much time on it. †¢ Inflexible promotion. Due to the low price, there is no more room for IKEA to provide with promotions on products. †¢ High price for Chinese consumers. Although products price in Chinese market are almost lowest in the world, many Chinese consumers still can not afford them. IKEA should price the products based on the Chinese actual situation in order to get profit. †¢ Distribution problems. In China, popularization of cars is not high like IKEA other market, so it will take several days for customers to wait for the distribution from IKEA and also they will be charged a high amount of distribution fee for it. Opportunities of IKEA †¢ Variety in goods categories. There are about 9,500 household items in IKEA, which is far more than other furniture companies. Customers will have more chance to choose from when shopping at IKEA. †¢ Green IKEA. What IKEA advocated is that to live a green life so this can be a good point which attracts customers. Threats of IKEA †¢ Professional malls. Some big professional malls such as professional bathe mall, professional kitchen mall maybe one big threat, customers may prefer the professional mall when they just buy bathroom or kitchen products. †¢ Other brands. There are many household brands in Chinese market now, such as B&Q, Macalline, etc. Some of them are local brands so they know Chinese market better than IKEA. †¢ Change of customers needs. Customers needs will  not be the same all year long, IKEA have to research frequently and find out what is profitable in order to make profits. 5.2 Environmental Analysis of Host Country- China Political system China is a socialist country powered by the Communist Party and a new People’s Republic of China was established in 1949. In 1978, China initiated the â€Å"reform and open† policy which emancipated the mind of Chinese people and make them become innovated in the future. The year when IKEA has first entered Chinese market was 1998 and it was just the 20th anniversary since Chinese â€Å"reform and open† policy in 1978. As a developing socialist country, China is fresh to most people and groups in rest of the world and it is really of great potential because it was more and more independent as China is developing day by day, many international groups have realized how potential the China market would be and then started to locate there branch companies in China at that time. As a developing country, China will always persist in taking the positive attitude towards all the advantageous investments from abroad. In the incoming year 2001 China accessed to the World T rade Organization successfully, which makes China a more open country and market. Economical environment in China There are 8 cities (in 6 provinces) (one of the eight is opening soon) in China where IKEA Group located its retail stores. Beijing, Shanghai, Liaoning, Jiangsu, Guangdong, Sichuan, etc. The forms below are showing the contrast of economical phenomenon between these locations and the rest. From the appendix 7 we can see the national average of disposable income in 2008 is about 15000yuan per capita, while the disposable income per capita in the six locations are mostly far more than the average figure. This means IKEA positioned itself in a more economic developing area while its target customers have higher total income and disposable income. Appendix 8 is part of the household consumption expenditure by region in 2008. It is clear that the six IKEA retail locations are all at the higher level of the consumption of expenditure than other areas. The high consumption expenditure in these six locations shows more buying potential to products. Appendix 9 is part of the total investment in fixed assets in the whole country by status of  registration and region in 2008.Most of the foreign investment in six provinces (Beijing and Shanghai are direct-controlled municipalities) are higher than other areas where IKEA didn’t locate its retail stores at. This illustrates that the more the foreign investment an area has the more open the area will be, the more easily the people accept the foreign products and ideas. Social environment Demographics †¢ Population and Density China has the largest amount of population in the world. In other world, it is the biggest potential market in the world. The eight cities where IKEA located his stores in all have large amount of population, especially Shanghai& Jiangsu& Guangdong because they are all along the coast in China. Places along the coast in China always have high density of population for there are more chances to get money and good development for individual at those places. Population stands for the purchasing power while more population means more potential purchasing power. †¢ Living standards Youth in China are more open minded than before, they will after whatever they like from abroad. As the development of economic and the quickening pace of life some so-called â€Å"white collars† in China don’t have much time and money to buy some luxurious furniture and IKEA is a good choice for them because what IKEA initiates is simple, durable and affordable furniture. In China, it is a fashion action to buy furniture from IKEA. 5.3 From the perspective of IKEA International Group †¢ IKEA located its Chinese headquarter in Beijing at the beginning when it came to China but in 2003 the headquarters moved to Shanghai because IKEA regards Shanghai a central city of China for it has the convenient sea transportation as well as the air transports which are advantages for IKEA, an international group couldn’t live without transport. †¢ IKEA relocated its Asian headquarter from Singapore to Shanghai which shows the great appreciation to large potential market in China. 6. International Marketing Objectives According to the previous analysis, the advantages and disadvantages for IKEA to develop in China are clear. Now IKEA have to make its marketing objectives in China market according to the analysis above. †¢ IKEA has high reputation among Chinese youth; word of mouth can be a good way of advertising so its targeting audience should be young person. In this case, lower the cost of operating a retail store is what should do next. †¢ The products in IKEA China are good but the delivery fee is terribly high. This will reduce the loyalty of customers. †¢ There are eight (one of the eight is opening soon) IKEA retail stores in China till 2010, as the World Exposition is coming, economic in Shanghai is going to greatly boom, so hope to open 1or 2 more stores outside the central Shanghai next year would be better. As the previous analysis we can see there are still some cities have the potential to run a IKEA retail store so IKEA could take a few cities into account such as Ha ngzhou, Tianjin, etc. 7. Foreign Market Entry Strategy Having done all the analysis about china’s market penetration, we are now facing the decision of which foreign market entry mode to use. Several factors need to be given full scrutiny before we choose from the grouping of entry modes. Internal factors are the deciding roles here in the strategy which should be considered with priority. They are mainly concerned with the firm itself. †¢ Ownership advantages It can be understood as asset-based advantages which include the firm’s resource ability, reputation, origin of country, potential of future growth and so on. Apparently, Ikea Group has both the tangible and intangible resources to enter Chinese market, even the brand name itself is a huge selling point. What the brand stands for are creative design, durability and functionality, and all of the three are not quite transferable, thus the transaction cost here is high, so we recommend joint venture as its entry mode further into Chinese market. †¢ Location How the furniture be shipped from A to B onto the shelf for display is important, since it has much to do with the cost of the business. Since Ikea has entered into china, most of the furniture is imported from Sweden.  Undoubtedly, this approach increases cost dramatically. Cooperate with local partner can help Ikea build good relationship with local suppliers. Further more, furniture manufacturing industry shows the tendency of transfer the production facilities to developing countries which offers relatively low labor cost, huge consuming market and stable political and economic environment (Capdevielle, Li & Nogal 2007) From this point of view, joint venture is a better choice which offer a great time and opportunity for Ikea boost its future plan of turning China into the supply center of in Asia. (Carpell 2006) †¢ Internationalization Experience & Global Strategy toward China According to Ikea website, up until August 2009, it had 267 stores and had trading service offic es in 26 countries and 28 distribution centers and 11 customer distribution centers in 16 countries. (http://www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea/facts_and_figures/index.html). Ikea opened its first store in China in 1998, and in the past 12 years it had up to 7 stores in mainland China, most of which are joint ventures. Shenyang Store is coming soon, planed to open in the middle of the year. Ikea expects to have 10 large stores up and running in China by 2010. (The China business review, 7-8, 2004) It strongly proves that Ikea has confidence and ambition in China. However, it is easier said than done. To accomplish its expectationï ¼Å'Ikea still got two more stores to construct. It should speed up in this plan. Considering this background, China’s market penetration can greatly reduce cost and risk. External factors should also be given careful consideration. They are basically having things to do with the overall target market environment. †¢ Social-cultural Factor When carry out the penetration plan, marketers should be cautious about China’s specific features, such as the diverse cultures which is bred by the vast territory, various kinds of business practice, different consuming philosophies, and all of these are quite difficult for foreigners to grasp on. In entering into a new market, the region size, rate of market and potential purchase power shall be the determinant parameters, so a local helper is needed. †¢ Political/ Economic Factor Before china entered WTO, government requires all foreign company to cooperate with local partner in order to help domestic enterprise to develop  their business and learn the advanced management skills [1]. Although the regulation had already been ended, not many firms shifted from joint venture to wholly owned store. Although the trend for future stores is wholly owned mode, it is still too soon to risk all the Ikea stores switch to this mode. From all the above, we strongly recommend the next few stores to open in the east part of China use the entry mode of joint venture to further expand its market, and strengthen its place in China. 8. Product/Service Mix Preparation Product and service are the essential elements in the development of company, the product of IKEA is designed by the purpose of simplifying, and the service believes the rule of do-it-yourself. However, with the special culture, economy and life style in China, IKEA should take some necessary change on its product, strategy, brand and service. 8.1 Product adaptation First, it is the endurance and practicability of product need to strengthen. Though IKEA has its own requirement and test on the quality of product, according to the latest research (Li 2009), it seems just aim at some special product, such as bedroom furniture, chair. Meanwhile, the equipment of kitchen class and bookcase are not as good as them. Thus, IKEA should pay attention to their entire product, every product needs to be test by certain standard. Second, IKEA has too much product, which makes the table of contents be also long. As there is too much choice for customers, it makes them nervous on how to choose the most suitable one. That is to say, IKEA needs to condense the table of product and makes it clear and simple, the customer would find the product they want first. 8.2 Product publicity IKEA used a lot of advertising in Europe and the United States, but there are so few in China and these ones are simple and bored, it makes large number of people know little about its product. On the other hand, the product of IKEA use environmental protection of materials and advanced ones, but most customers do not know them, because IKEA has few actions to explain it in China, while it is doing enough publicity in Europe. Therefore, IKEA should put more energy and time on advertising and publicity, such as television advertising, as there is a very large population watching TV. Moreover, it  is useful to support some event, for example, Sichuan Earthquake. Also it is important to make them interesting and attractive, it would give the design concept of DIY to the customers. 8.3 Product price IKEA is well known as good quality and cheap price because of its centralized purchasing and professional logistics, and it makes most people have ability to buy them. But in China, the price is higher than others, this makes most customers just look them. So there are some useful ways help IKEA reduce the high price. First, it is necessary to build a new production base in China, as now the production base is in Malaysia, which provides the product to the Asia. This way would avoid the import tariff, because the import tariff in China is a big one. Second, it also helps IKEA reduce the transport costs, whether transport by air or by ship, the cost is not a small number. Third, there are many small finished factories in China, IKEA should take more material from them, not in overseas. What is more, IKEA should give them a certain size of order, this helps make the price lower for competition. 8.4 New product development As it is known that there is a too lager population in China, it makes the house of China be smaller than other countries, it means that there are limited spacing for putting the furniture. Thus, a good idea for IKEA is to develop the new product that can be folded, it saves the space for customers, and this also makes the customers would buy more products due to it needs little space. 8.5 Market expansion In 1998, IKEA came into the Chinese market first in Shanghai, from then to now, it has pasted twelve years, but the number of IKEA place in China is only 7, meanwhile, it has 240 ones in the world. From the data, you can know the speed of its development in China is so slow. It loses much choice. Hence, IKEA should build many new shopping places in the important cities, such as the southeast of China, because the cities in this area develop fast and the consumption capacity of customers is suitable for IKEA. 8.6 Service Mix The service in Europe is do-it-yourself, but the situation is not the same in  China, most people in China do not have cars, so customers need IKEA provide home delivery service, IKEA do it, but the charge of it is high. For example, a customer buys a small chair of 79 yuan, but the cost for delivering is 60 yuan, it is not worth for customers. Therefore, IKEA should reduce the rate of delivering charge, and it is effective to provide the installation for free, as almost all of the competitors support the free installation. Another strategy is using some staffs to introduce and recommend the product for customers, because Chinese people is different from others, they like someone talking the information to them, sometimes they also accept the staffs’ selection on the product. 9. Conclusion To sum up, IKEA has become a successful international company with a wide range of products, and its global experience and unique strategy has led it occupy the large market share. But there are also some problems blocking its development in other countries because of the different culture, economy and lifestyle. So it is time for IKEA to carry out the new strategy on balancing its brand, product, service and management in order to expand new market, and take more advantages in the competition.

Jails and Prisons History and Development Essay

Jails and prisons lay at the heart of the Criminal Justice System. These facilities helped forge the concept of rehabilitation. These institutions have changed over time and now reflect the modern methods of housing convicted individuals who need to be reformed or punished. Description of jails The clear concise difference between a jail and a prison is the time limit a convicted person is sentenced to and what offenses were committed. In a jail, prisoners are usually confined because they were convicted of a lesser or petty offense. Examples of petty offenses are driving without a license or a misdemeanor drug possession charge. Most of these offenses come with a sentence of a year or less and anyone with over a year sentence is usually sent to a prison facility (Seiter, 2011). Jails act as holding facilities where inmates rarely get time to be out of their cells, to reflect, or to engage in recreational time. Because jails are so short term the focus is on inward reflection of crime through solitude. Some of these restrictions are a product themselves of the lesser amount of time spent in the correctional facilities. Criminals are charged more in a jail facility with reflecting on their crime by being exposed to sheer solitude. Furthermore, jails rarely have any vocational or rehabilitation programs utilized within their walls. On the other hand, prisons have an ample amount of time to work with, rehabilitate, and reform offenders. Prisons do this with the hope that offenders can eventually be placed back into society and limit their recidivism back to crime. History of state and federal prisons The jail component of the American corrections system came well before the initiation of any prisons, probation, parole, or even halfway houses. The historical origins of jails or local corrections facilities in America come from England. American jails have developed and progressed so much further than that of its roots. Jails served a different purpose in England. Throughout the progression to the modern age, past mentality was altered from a place of confinement before harsh punishment could be administered to a place that rehabilitation and reflection could occur. The historical developments of jails and prisons overtime have gone from detention for purpose of public humiliation or deterrence, to an â€Å"out of sight out of mind† mentality, which segregated convicted individuals from the rest of society. State prisons have their roots in the penitentiary reform ideals of the Age of Enlightenment. The Three Prisons Act is the first law that authorized the establishment of federal prisons. This act was an important milestone for U.S. prison reform. This most important fact is that this act laid the foundation for the federal prison system to be created. Prior to the act being passed there were few penal facilities in the United States. Before this time period and the passing of this act only one facility, the Walnut Street Jail located in Philadelphia, stood the possibility of housing a large capacity of inmates charged with federal crimes. The role of a jail is a diverse one and conducts a very difficult mission. Few offenders skip the step of passing through a jail as they enter the correctional system. Jails hold a variety of offenders: including those arrested; those detained pending trial; those sentenced to short terms of confinement for minor crimes; those awaiting transfer to another facility; and those who are held administratively for a criminal justice agency. Some jail systems are larger than all but a few state prison systems while others are extremely small and have only four or five beds. Jails face unique issues such as dealing with unknown offenders, detoxification and medical problems, and serving the court with security and prisoner transportation. Jails are operated by local authorities and primarily hold pretrial detainees. Other jail inmates are serving time for misdemeanors, while others are held for a variety of reasons. Comparison of security levels The jail-prison distinction, however, is a very simplified label to attach to a very diverse set of facilities. There are in fact a myriad of confinement facilities meant to house criminals of all levels of seriousness. These facilities are broken up by government boundaries of local, state, and federal confinement facilities. The time needing to be served and the severity of the crime determine which of the facilities a convicted person might be sent. Prisons range starting from the most basic minimum security that houses the offenders that are less violent and are often for more administrative type offenses like white collar offenders or drug related crimes where no one else was affected or harmed. These types of prisons are considered more like camps, because they have a relatively low staff-to-inmate ratio, and limited or no perimeter fencing. These institutions are work-and program-oriented and many are located adjacent to larger institutions or on military bases, where inmates help serve the labor needs of the larger institution or base. The next step above the minimum security is low security institutions which have double-fenced perimeters, mostly dormitory or cubicle housing, and strong work and program components. The staff-to-inmate ratio is increased compared to the previous stage. Medium security prisons are the next level up. They are stronger facilities with hardened perimeters that have double chain link fences and an electronic monitoring system surrounding the facility and its corridors. Confinement in the medium-security prisons is cell type but treatment programs are available to convicts to help propel them forward in their reformation. Here the ratio is reversed and the staff greatly outnumbers the inmates. The strictest of prison facilities is the high or maximum security institution. Within its walls are some of the most severe criminals who have committed some of the most heinous acts. This final type of institution is comprised of reinforced fences and walls. Prisoners are contained in solitary cells and their movements are controlled and monitored extremely closely. Because of the severity of the crimes committed by the convicted individuals that are incarcerated in these maximum security facilities, there is an extremely high ratio of staff to inmates (Prison Types General Information, 2012). For prisons to be safe and secure there must be sufficient physical security, consistent implementation of security practices, established methods to control inmate behavior, and adequate preparation to reduce the likelihood or to respond to inmate unrest. For prison staff to provide effective rehabilitative services there must be an assessment of the needs and best practices of a programs focusing on substance abuse, mental health, religious services, education recreation, rehabilitation, and work opportunities. Fully understanding the importance of these programs and implementing them effectively is crucial for prisons to accomplish their dual mission of confinement and rehabilitation. Factors that influence growth The United States currently incarcerates more people of its citizens per capita than any other country in the world. If you count the amount of prisoners which currently reside in the U.S. prison system, it is approximately two million. This would mean that one out of every hundred and fifty residents are incarcerated in a U.S. prison of jail at any given time. Some of the factors that have led to the explosion of the prison population are poverty driven crime and the increased regulation of human and social behaviors (Ruddel, 2011). In the 21st century, we are still contemplating the dilemmas of overcrowding and the best way to correct criminal’s behaviors. The world needs to constantly evolve its correctional systems to meet the concerns of its society and effectively reform criminal behavior to create less of a strain on law abiding citizens. Jails and Prisons are a tremendous and vital piece to the Criminal Justice process. These facilities have been a part of the correctional system for over 200 years. It stands to reason that while the system will change based on new technologies and ideas, the principals of reform and correction will always hold true (â€Å"U.S. Prison Populations-Trends and Implications†, 2012). Conclusion It is hoped that justice will prevail through the rehabilitation and reform of convicted individuals, and our prison system is the best way of correcting the factors that may influence a person to commit such offenses. Incarcerated individuals today should feel fortunate that the times and ideals of prison life have changed and criminals are classified and housed based on the type and severity of the crime, rather than one large melting pot of criminals. Crime will never be completely eradicated therefore the necessity for facilities to incarcerate offenders will perpetually be needed. Free will is one of the greatest inherent rights human kind has but this right makes some people commit crimes and others remain compliant with the rules and regulations of society. The fact that we have free will conclude that criminal behavior will not ever truly disappear and every attempt should be made to inform/reform and rehabilitate offenders, making them act in an appropriate manner that is so cially acceptable. References: Prison Types & General Information. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.bop.gov/locations/institutions/index.jsp Ruddel, R. (2011). American Jails: A Retrospective Examination. U.S. Prison populations-trends and implications. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.prisonpolicy.org/scans/sp/1044.pdf Mackenzie, D. L. (2001). Sentencing and Corrections in the 21st Century:Setting the Stage for the Future. College Park, Maryland: Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Seiter, R. (2011). Corrections an Introduction (3rd ed.). Upper saddle Hall, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Businesses and Jobs in Saudi Arabia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Businesses and Jobs in Saudi Arabia - Essay Example Businesses in Saudi Arabia According to the annual â€Å"Doing Business† report (Reuters) issued by the International Finance Corporation (IFC)-World Bank for 2010, the kingdom of Saudi Arabia was listed as the world’s 13th most economically competitive country. In addition, as per the Reuters report, the country has been considered as a potential region for business operations in the Arab World and the entire Middle East (Reuters). â€Å"Saudi Arabian companies dominate 2009’s â€Å"MEED 100†, with companies listed on the Tadawul accounting for 29 out of the region’s 100 biggest publicly quoted companies ranked by market capitalization† (Economy of Saudi Arabia). While analyzing the major business sectors of Saudi Arabia, the petroleum production, natural gas, chemicals, cement, fertilizer, plastics, and construction are the major industrial segments of the country. Among this, petroleum industry provides large scale business opportunities in the country. As Alyousef and Abu-ebid point out, statistical data show that Saudi Arabian petroleum sector accounts for nearly 55% of the GDP, 90% of export revenues, and 45% of budget earnings. In addition, private sector represents roughly 40% of the GDP. As of 2002, over 95% of the Kingdom’s oil business was initiated by the parastatal giant Saudi Aramco on behalf of the country’s government. ... As per the Saudi Gazette, the country’s exports of chemical products increased from $10.8 million in 2005 to $16.2 million in 2008 (Saudi Gazette). For more details on the KSA’s international trade see figure 11. The above diagram indicates Saudi Arabia’s international trade over the last few years. The graph clearly indicates that value of Saudi Arabia’s total exports is always less than that of the country’s total imports. The country’s business sector has been showing greater improvements since Saudi Arabia became the member of WTO in 2005. Oil and petroleum industries have a significant influence on the country’s international trade. According to the information released by the International Trade Center, Saudi Arabia’s total exports represented $213.4 billion in 2010. With 17.2% of the Kingdom’s exports, United States is ranked as the country’s biggest exporter partner. Saudi Arabia has significant trade relat ionship with countries like Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also. Jobs in Saudi Arabia Historically, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia provides extensive employment opportunities to the country’s citizens and immigrants. Statistical data indicate that KSA economy is currently employing nearly five and a half million foreign workers. It seems that the KSA government encourages the country’s private sector growth with intent to meet the employment needs of swelling Saudi population. However, the economic downturn in 2009 led to unemployment hike in the Saudi Arabia. In order to overcome the adverse impacts of the economic downturn, the KSA government adopted a new employment strategy in 2009. However, recent reports indicate that the company is gradually improving its

Reinforcement of Dental Composites by Electrospun Nanofibers Research Proposal

Reinforcement of Dental Composites by Electrospun Nanofibers - Research Proposal Example Our work draws support from the background researches concerned with the application of nanoscaled reinforcing materials and organic-inorganic hybrid nanocomposites synthesized by conventional soft chemistry procedures on various innovative industrial products. The principal look out of the following investigation is also based on the previous studies conducted to understand the intricate mechanisms behind the phenomenon of dissipation of energy that is hypothesized to be one of the definitive factors for hiking the index of fracture toughness in solid composites. (Composites Science and Technology, 2008) Past researches show that this energy dissipating phenomenon implicating increase in the fracture toughness is far more definitive and effect enticing for nanocomposites compared to ordinary composites having micron scaled fibers. In the following investigation we attempt to understand and interpret the reasons associated with mimicking such kind of mechanical strength and structure d toughness after reinforcing the resinous polyacrylate matrices of the dental composites with hyperbranched polymeric nanofibers. ... (Saudi Dental Journal, 2006) Though such research is always critical and is undoubtedly clouded by several other unaccountable factors, like, the inherent clinical design of the prosthesis, deformations of the dental base, climatic wear and tear of the metal supports, conditions leading to accidental damages along with the gender, age and total span of usage of the wearer; the plausible causes arising from the discrepancies in the mechanical index of the denture material itself, was the only object of our interest for pursuing further investigations along relevant lines. Therefore, it is undoubtedly clear that the primary objective of this research is to record and understand the effects of the covalently bonded nanoscaled organic reinforcements on the performance and durability index of the recently used dental composites. By designing composites of polyacrylate resin matrices modified with commercial dendritic polymers, like polyesteramide and polyester, we need to create a variati on from the previous investigations by incorporating electrospun polyamide nanofibers into the system and test their effect on the overall mechanical strength of these composites. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: The nanofibers will be synthesized by electrospinning three different polymers that are Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVOH), Poly-L-Lactide Acid (PLLA) and Nylon 6 (Polycaprolactam or Polyamide or PA6) and they are to be used with the Hybrane modified acrylate resin matrix of the composites at different weight percents and particle diameters. The compressive strength, diametric tensile strength, linear shrinkage index and flexural strength will be measured at different concentrations and diameters. The morphology of the

Philosophy - Categorical Imperative Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Philosophy - Categorical Imperative - Essay Example So what is a ‘mere’ means? Is there a line, and when might we cross that line between a ‘legitimate’ means and ‘mere’ means? Let’s consider the workplace. It is quite clear that slavery is using someone as a mere means. Holding someone captive and working to another’s ends is certainly using him or her as a mere means. Slavery is one extreme. One might say that at the other extreme is the self-employed person who determines his or her own ends and purposes, who decides when and how much to work and at what projects. In between these two extremes are a vast number of different types of work situations. Kant says we use people as ‘mere’ means when we determine their ends and purposes for them. Would involving the worker more in the decision-making process of work transform using them as a ‘mere’ means to using them as a ‘legitimate’ means? Have you ever worked or are you working now for minimum wage? At the time of this writing, minimum wage in America is about $5.35 per hour, in other words, $856 per month, and $9844 per year (with small variations in some states). Is the kind of life the wage could provide for the worker a relevant matter in determining a case of ‘mere’ means? Does raising someone’s salary or giving them a Christmas bonus transform using them as a ‘mere’ means into using them as a ‘legitimate’ means? If yes, is there a salary level at which this transformation takes place? Think about the working conditions for many people earning a wage. It seems that some of the most repugnant jobs are actually the ones paid the least—standing over a hot, greasy French fry station, hard manual labor, cleaning up others’ waste, etc. Is the degree that a job is repugnant a meaningful determinant for ‘mere’ means? If poorly paid repugnant work is one of ‘mere’ means, and if we raise the wage for repugnant

3.Critically discuss the view that political regimes cannot have Essay

3.Critically discuss the view that political regimes cannot have legitimacy without democracy - Essay Example The role of democracy, in this context, is to legitimate what is legal and vice versa. Whether it is a representative democracy or direct democracy, the role of democratic processes is to bring a moral bearing to the legislatures. More broadly, democracy is the force of virtue through which a state can exercise its authority. The rest of this essay will elaborate various facets to the interrelation between legitimacy and democracy. â€Å"the question of the relationship between legitimacy and democracy depends on the relationship between support and democracy, a relationship which is contingent, not axiomatic...Legitimacy and democracy are related if members support an institution only to the extent that they view it as democratic: the relationship between legitimacy and democracy is therefore at the level of beliefs and of beliefs that the institution has to be democratic if it is to be supported.† (Blondel, Sinnott, & Svensson, 1998, p. 10) In liberal democracies, especially, legitimacy of the regime is of paramount importance. What is true for nations is also applicable to supranational entities. The European Union is a case in point, where most nations in the bloc purport to embrace the liberal-democratic constitutional framework. Even the EU constitution is an abstraction of this common theme uniting several nations in the bloc. In the case of the larger entity the EU, as it continues to expand, â€Å"the complex has intensified and has become more and more closely linked to the issue of legitimacy†. (Rosanvallon, 2011, p. 7) It is understood at the time of ratification of the EU constitution that, for the EU to be a democratic conglomeration, gaining legitimacy is an imperative. Equally, the European Parliament is another key institution for maintaining democratic processes within the EU. The Council of Ministers and the national parliaments are expected to play a complementary role in this regard. With thes e expectations of the European

Christian Thought, Greek Philosophical Thought, Hindu Tradition Research Paper

Christian Thought, Greek Philosophical Thought, Hindu Tradition - Research Paper Example Hence discovering new avenues of mythology and knowing peculiar but amazing facts about the believes of Hindus. On the morning of November 1st 2011, I packed my bags and was out for a trip to New York, probably the most busy and populated cities of USA. My trip mainly aimed at visiting the various Hindu temples in the city and jotting my experiences as this was my field work. I got a list of the Hindu temples as a part of my assignment that I had to cover. My first visit on 2nd November, 2011 was to the Ganesha Temple, located in 45-57 Bowne street, New York. It was small frame temple, was completed in the initial days of 1977. I then came to learn the deity worshipped was that of the elephant god, who is known as Ganesha. The idol of the deity is gorgeously dressed. As per the traditional Hindu belief, Lord Ganesha's blessings are indispensible for success in all mundane affairs. So Ganesha puja is supposed to be an essential part, before any Hindu religious activity. Customarily ca rried out be it a marriage or any other ritual. As per Hindu Mythology, Lord Ganesha is the first son of Lord Shiva and Universal Mother Goddess Parvati and is an embodiment of knowledge. As per traditional belief, Lord Ganesha was beheaded during the time of his birth, however instead of a human head his head was replaced by that of an elephant. Despite the fact that this is a mythological anecdote, what really amazes me is how the story is mingling with so many Hindus sentiments and how it has got a profound influence on the way of life of a devout Hindu.  The daily rituals of Pujas are performed with utmost sincerity and full devotion, both in the temple, and as also I came to learn, as a daily way of life of many Hindus here in New York, although they are miles away from their home country. In addition to the daily rituals, the weekend services are conducted by volunteer priests. Structurally, the temple follows the guidance laid down in the Hindu scriptures for temple buildin g, also known as the Agama Shastra in Sanskrit. Agama Shastra also provides a departure from the traditionally accepted ways of religious conduct and worship that has been laid down in the main body of Hindu scriptures of Vedas, Upanishads, Epics and Puranas. My next visit was to the Om Sai Mandir, located in the heart of the city at 45-11 Smart Street. c. The temple is open from early morning till late evening, and contains the idol Sri Sai Baba. All visitors were welcome to visit the temple and seek the Baba's blessings, whether they were devout followers of the Guru or not. Sai Baba is a real life figure, who preached his faith to his followers during historical times. This is in contrast to Lord Ganesha, whose originates from Hindu mythology. He was a spiritual saint, a fakir (beggar). His followers believe that he helped his contemporaries and disciples with his miracles. The Baba is a Hindu Guru, a mystic philanthropist as well as educator of religious virtues. In the religiou s teachings of the Baba, one witnesses a blend of Hindu and Muslim beliefs and ways of life. So, like the Sufi Movement, the preaching of the Baba heralds the confluence of both Hindus and Muslims religious thoughts. To my surprise this is the place one can say, this temple occupies a position of importance for people of both the faiths who live here in New York, be their origin in India or in other countries of the sub-continent like Bangladesh and Pakistan. Seeing the personalities and faiths of religious leaders

Write a report on the article we google you Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Write a report on the we google you - Article Example The young aspiring professional that is covered in the article is named Mimi Brewster. Mimi had great credentials such as a bachelor degree in Modern Chinese culture, an MBA from the University of Stanford, managerial experience in the apparel industry, and trilingual language skills which included English, Mandarin, and another Chinese dialect. The company interviewing Mimi had a position open in Shanghai China. The interviewer liked Mimi’s personality, skills, abilities, and her professional credentials. Fred, the interviewer, thought that talent like Mimi was hard to come by. He wanted to hire her after the first interview. Virginia Flanders, HR manager, continued with the employee selection process. One of her background checks included looking at the first eleven pages of Google after placing the name of the candidate. Virginia found a couple of articles about Mimi. During her college years she had been involved in protest against the WTO and against the Chinese government. These revelations worried the HR manager so much that she discarded Mimi as a legitimate candidate. Virginia advised Fred not to confront Mimi about the matter to protect the company against discrimination because due to abuse of privacy laws. At the end of the article the company was leaning towards not hiring Mimi. The article concluded with the evaluation of the scenario by four professionals working at important positions in different organizations. They would express their expert opinion on whether the company should hire Mimi or discard her as a candidate. The first opinion came from John Palfree, a law professor. He believes the company should hire Mimi. If the firm does not hire her due to the Google search they would be discriminating. He also believes that discarding candidates because of internet content is counterproductive. The action eliminates a lot of

Industrial Relations Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Industrial Relations - Article Example In simple terms industrial relationships can be called multidisciplinary field that refers to the employment relationship. Sometimes it is also named employment relationship because of the negligible importance of non industrial employment relationship. But to consider it just as labor relations is an oversimplification because it has much more to it. Technically speaking Industrial relations defined in business terms as â€Å"Employer – employee relationships covered specifically under collective bargaining and industrial relations law.† ... hnically speaking Industrial relations defined in business terms as â€Å"Employer – employee relationships covered specifically under collective bargaining and industrial relations law.† Industrial relations not an outdated topic There are a number of researchers who assume that Industrial relations study has become obsolete and proposed closure of UK’s most study centers on the subject as (Darlington1 (ed.) (2009). They believe that academic industrial relations are obsolete and are no more required. It has been replaced and dealt better in newer subjects such as HRM, Human resource management and OB organizational behavior. These subjects deal with the human factor while industrial relations study focuses on the collective approach. Collective institutions and processes (trade unions, strike and collective bargaining. Three aspects of employment relationship Those who believe in industrial relation perspective identified three important aspects. They are as un der. (Trevor Colling, 2010) Indeterminacy Inequality of employment relationship Dynamism Indeterminacy Indeterminacy in the sense, that unlike other contracts it does not involve physical exchange of goods and services for money. But the contract is made on the basis of the capacity to perform and produce the desirable and the potential to purchase those goods services. In the labor contract a worker or employee only sells his ability to work which is intangible which can only be materialized when the actual work is done and the worker is involved in the production process. A gap can exist between the perceived, expectation standard of performance and the actual one. Inequality of employment relationship Inequality exists in the relationship between the employee and employer. An employee is not usually in

Management of Technology10 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Management of Technology10 - Essay Example The bio-data collected assists the system to track down individual traits that are critical for record keeping. Modern day technology has evolved greatly where sharing of data between departments as well as organizations is possible through online systems. Much of the organizational data and sensitive information has been stored in electronic form through internet systems especially through hired computer cloud services. The access and management of the information is often through coded security passwords but the organization realizes the critical need for cyber security because of such threats as system hacking and destruction by malware. This is the most important reason why the board of directors needs to consider installation of cyber security systems in our organization. Other organizations often fall victim to loss of data by hackers who use malware to access and corrupt system data. Banks are often the major targets by such hackers with the intention of financial gains. Our organization needs to install well functioning antivirus programs, which are in a position to present any harmful file from opening in the computer systems. Besides, regular scanning of the systems in use is necessary in order to remove any virus or such other malware that would have gotten access into the system in any manner. Laudon K. C, Laudon J. P. and Elraga E. A., 2013. Management Information Systems, plus MyMISLab with Pearson eText, Global Edition, 13/E. Available at: (Accessed on 21 December

Social Implications of Medical Issues Essay Example for Free

Social Implications of Medical Issues Essay Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease that is primarily a disease of young women. The disease has a wide array of manifestations and can be fatal. SLE produces antibodies to the body’s own cells leading to full-body inflammation and tissue damage. The causes of the disease are unknown but have been linked to genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. A patient with SLE may experience times of extreme illness and full remissions. The disease can affect joints, skin, brain, lungs, kidneys, and blood vessels. Common signs and symptoms of SLE are fatigue, pain or swelling in joints, skin rashes, and fevers. Multiple providers are required in treating lupus due to the number of organ systems and body areas involved. A diagnosis of SLE impacts hundreds of thousands of people each year. A diagnosis of SLE can impact a patient’s life physically, emotionally, and financially. There are numerous campaigns and programs available for those that have been diagnosed from self-management education of the disease and it’s symptoms to physical activity programs to improve the health and endurance of the patient. These programs offer evidence based interventions to help minimize the impact of SLE on a patient’s life. There are also numerous research efforts of the disease for the health care providers in better treatment of the disease and for the patient’s in coping with the signs and symptoms. The medical description of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus is an auto-immune disease of un-known cause. The disease affects multiple organs and causes multiple systemic symptoms. It is a very unpredictable disease; it can progress quickly or slowly and the experienced symptoms vary from patient to patient. The disease has no cure and may result in early death. Patients can live years in remission and manage their flare-ups with medications and medical care management. Falvo states that for patients, â€Å"The goal is to improve or maintain organ function and to prevent permanent organ damage. † (2009) The disease is not easily diagnosed. These patients tend to be young females and are more apt to be African American. The Lupus Foundation states on their website that, â€Å"Because many symptoms of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) mimic those of other illnesses, lupus can be a difficult disease to diagnose. (2012) Laboratory tests in combination of the patient’s physical signs and symptoms is how the disease of SLE. It is not common to make a diagnosis immediately. The Lupus Foundation also states on their website that, â€Å"More often than not it is a diagnosis that evolves over time, leading towards more certainty that a person does or does not meet the criteria for a diagnosis of lupus. (2012) The American College of Rheumatology (ACR) developed a list of 11 common measures to assist is the diagnosing of SLE. According to the ACR if a patient is currently experiencing or has experienced at least four from the list there is a strong chance that the patient has lupus. Some of the most common and apparent symptoms that the patients experience are â€Å"butterfly† rashes (over the nose and cheeks) and joint discomfort. Another common symptom that is experienced is chronic and extreme fatigue. The ACR gives a comprehensive list of the symptoms including, rash, photosensitivity, oral ulcers, arthritis, serositis (inflammation of the linings around the heart and lungs), kidney disorder, seizures, anemia and a compromised immune system. Patients with SLE may also experience fevers over 100 ° F and hair loss. The impact on the body areas and organ systems is a slow process but, is very destructive. Being that systemic lupus erythematosus is an auto-immune disease that creates antibodies against the bodies own cells and causes inflammation and tissue damage. It has an impact on the body as a whole and is eventually fatal. The number of cases each year is, â€Å"†¦difficult to obtain because onset is difficult to determine (non-specific symptoms and signs) and the required, resource-intense studies are done in small areas. (CDC, 2012) It is also stated that case estimates range from 1. 8 to 7. 6 per 100,000 people in various parts of the United States. Systemic lupus erythematosus has a high mortality rate when compared to other rheumatic type conditions. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists on their website, â€Å"From 1979 to 1998, the annual number of deaths with lupus as the underlying cause increased from 879 to 1,406. Crude death rates increased with age (35% were in 15-44 year age group), among women (5x higher than in men), and among blacks (3x higher than in whites). Death rates were highest and increased the most over time among black women aged 45-64 years. † (2012) The deaths mainly occurred when a patient was experiencing active disease and went into organ failure. Usually, failure of the kidneys and/or the heart were the main contributors to the deaths. The treatments can often result in extreme side effects. A common treatment involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs that may cause reproductive issues. This often causes compliance issues with the treatment plans and exacerbation of symptoms. Psychosocial challenges that patients with systemic lupus erythematosus experience come into effect at different stages of the disease. Patients with SLE often do not have apparent symptoms that can be seen by others. The Lupus Foundation states, â€Å"†¦because you may not have any visible signs of disease, the people around you may not realize how much discomfort and pain you are experiencing, or they may not know that you are sick at all. † (2012) That makes it difficult for patients to explain that they are ill or to receive the needed support from family, friends and co-workers. After the initial diagnosis, people surrounding the patient may be supportive but, as time goes by, those people may show annoyance and/or irritation to symptoms of fatigue and pain. There is also fear experienced by the family that they will lose their loved one to the disease. This can cause overly pampering and tiptoeing around the family member with systemic lupus erythematosus. This need for extra care can also cause feelings of guilt in the patient because the life that they and their family used to know has been adjusted around their condition. Spouses tend to have a very difficult time because the intimacy that was once shared can change dramatically. The patient’s self-esteem and body image can be challenged due to symptoms of skin rashes and lesions, hair loss and weight gain. Other symptoms such as joint pain and genital sores can cause intercourse to be painful. According to The Lupus Foundation, â€Å"if the frequency and pleasure of intimacy and sex fade, the partner without lupus may feel hurt and confused, or even resentful and angry. (2012) This would make it frustrating for both partners because the relationship that had been is now something very different. Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus are often able to continue working. The Americans with Disabilities Act passed in 1990 has helped many patients diagnosed with debilitating conditions. The Lupus Foundation comments that, â€Å"Many people with lupus are able to continue to work, although they may need to make changes in their work environment. Flexible work hours, job-sharing, and telecommuting may help you to keep working. It may be helpful to begin to make such arrangements soon after you have been diagnosed with lupus. † (2012) The fatigue and hospitalizations are the symptoms that would effect work attendance more than other symptoms of the disease. There are successful community based programs developed for patients with SLE. Self-management education is on the most important areas to focus on with any chronic condition. Teaching patients to be compliant and an active participant in their own care is extremely important in the success of the treatments. The availability of the internet has allowed patients to educate themselves and research treatments and be actively involved in support groups. The positive impact of self-education is shown in the improvement of treatment outcomes and those diagnosed with SLE are able to live longer and more normal lives. According to The Lupus Foundation, â€Å"We now know more about lupus than ever before. Dedicated researchers are on the brink of significant breakthroughs in the underlying science of the immune system, while public awareness and understanding continue to grow. Improvements in diagnosis, a greater understanding of how medications can work together to control symptoms, and increased knowledge of the effects of the disease have allowed better management of lupus over time. Today people with lupus are leading healthier lives and living longer than at any time in history. † (2012) According to the CDC, â€Å"Long gone are the days when health care providers told people with arthritis to â€Å"rest their joints†. 2012) Physical activity programs have become a very important part of treatment plans that providers put in place for their patients with SLE. Increasing strength and stamina has shown to improve the body’s ability to adjust to arthritis and joint conditions. Building up cardiovascular strength and muscle strength also helps with pain control. The CDC also states, â€Å"Scientific studies have shown that participation in moderate-intensity, low-impact physical activity improves pain, function, mood, and quality of life without worsening symptoms or disease severity. (2012) Patients with SLE tend to experience the most pain from joint and arthritis discomfort therefore becoming and remaining physically active is an effective form of treatment of the symptoms of the disease. A research project concerning SLE is the study of the role of antibodies in cognitive dysfunction in patients with SLE. The study reviewed the effects of SLE on the brain and the correlation of mild to severe cognitive impairment. There is a symptom that SLE patients experience called the â€Å"lupus fog† where the patients seem dizzy and confused. The purpose of the study is, â€Å"The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the association between cognitive dysfunction and serum anti-pentapeptide Ab. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) will be performed for evaluation of potentially confounding central nervous system (CNS) disease such as cerebral infarction, and of blood brain barrier breakdown by employing gadolinium enhancement. Furthermore, in participants who agree, a lumbar puncture will be performed and cerebrospinal fluid will be obtained for preliminary evaluation of the intrathecal levels of the anti-pentapeptide Ab associated with cognitive dysfunction. If the anti-pentapeptide Ab is associated with cognitive dysfunction, therapeutic interventions via NR2 receptor blockade or the blockade of the anti-pentapeptide Ab may be considered in a future study. † (2008) They are hoping to find the connections to the cognitive dysfunction so that they are able to treat these symptoms of SLE. Systemic lupus erythematosus patients have not had many new treatment options. According to The Lupus Foundation, â€Å"There have been no new treatments for lupus in the past several decades until the 2011 FDA approval of belimumab. † (2012) MedicineNet. om explains belimumab as a synthetic injectable antibody that blocks the autoimmune attack of the body on itself. It helps fight the disease and all of the debilitating symptoms. It is said that, â€Å"belimumab-treated patients experienced less activity of their SLE than those who received other SLE therapies. † (2012) The best interventions to assist in minimizing the impact of the illness is exercise and compliance with the medical plan put in place by the health care provider. The research performed for this paper shows that most SLE patients become less active and do not want to adhere to the medical plans that they should follow. Patient education is key in getting SLE patients to follow their medical regimen. Studies have proven that exercise is an excellent way to control pain and deal with the symptoms of the disease. The more education and support that the provider pushes their patients to seek the better off the patient will take care of themselves. Self-education makes the patient feel that they have a vested interest in the management of their care. They will not just depend on the provider and their care givers to make everything happen as it should. They will not just depend on medications to heal. They will help to mentally prepare themselves for their life with SLE. In conclusion, patients with SLE should understand the psychosocial aspects of their condition and help to educate their spouses and family in what to expect to happen during their lifetime. Patients should adhere to the medical plans put in place by their health care providers and educate themselves in all of their treatment options. The more educated a patient becomes about their condition the more they can assist their own bodies in dealing with the symptoms it experiences mentally and physically.

Codification of Law in India

Codification of Law in India Douglas C. North in his book Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance talks about the importance of institutions, and how these institutions influence economic performance. Institutions include both informal rules  [1]  like code of conducts, traditions and customs and formal rules like constitution, laws and property rights  [2]  . People generally pay attention only to the formal rules that exist in the society and the informal rules dont get the attention and importance that they should get. The British in India did the same thing. But, North argues that these informal rules are also important and they shape the future of the economy. Institutions as defined by North are humanly devised constraints that structure economic, social and political interaction.  [3]   Entry of British in India When the British came to India in 1600s they saw a society which was not governed by any formal laws like the Bible (which was considered to be a divine source of power, law and rules for them) which governed the English; but a heterogeneous society where every individual followed his or her own custom and tradition which were varied. There was no uniformity in the practices that were followed by the people. The concept of formal law like being governed by a uniform system of law or a constitution was an alien concept to the Indians. Kautilya in Arthashastra recognizes existence of four sources of law which are dharma (scriptures), vyavahara (mutual agreement), charitra (local custom) and rajashasana (state decree).  [4]  Kautilya says that these were in ascending order and that the state order prevailed above all the scriptures and customary practices, when a conflict would arise. Similarly even Ashoka and Akbar developed laws which were to be followed by the subjects but they n ever mandated the people to follow these laws unless their customs were such so as to lead to communal disharmony. Thus, we see that the Indians had complete freedom to practice any norm, practice, custom etc. that they pleased as long as harmony was maintained. When the British stayed here as traders they did not interfere into these local customs and practices and were least concerned about it. When they came to the sub-continent the political power was weak as the power of the Mughal Empire in the center was crippling, thus making it easier for the British to gain political control and make a strong foothold in India. The English did gain the central control but their supremacy would only be recognized by the people if they would resolve disputes, which encouraged the British to develop judicial system in India. The law provided the British nothing less than a comprehensive ideology through which to rule.  [5]   The ideology which was used by the British was as Edward Said talks about in his path breaking book Orientalism.  [6]  They made the Indians believe that they were barbaric, uncivilized, in darkness and backward and it was their (British) duty to make the Indians civilized, modern, and progressive and bring them enlightenment. There was cultural hegemony which existed and the British believed that they could improve the Indian situation. The image of the cruel and superstitious natives who needed Christian salvation was deliberately constructed by the Evangelists.  [7]   Informal Institutions in early India and path dependence Initially the British tried administering the practices, norms, culture and traditions that were prevalent in the Indian society, but as there was lack of uniformity as everyone followed different customs and traditions the British found the administration to be difficult. James Mill and Thomas Babington Macaulay wanted to codify the laws in India and wanted to conduct an experiment and see how codified laws worked. They wanted to make the laws based on the principal of utilitarianism and wanted a code which was symmetric in all parts  [8]  and which would bring in uniformity. Thus, began Indias shift from an informal institution where interactions between parties were based on social norms and customs to formal institutions like codified laws. The natives in India for centuries had been following their own local customs and usages.  [9]  The Indians had been travelling on a path where they were not mandated to follow a particular law or text and were free to choose the norm or custom that they wanted to follow. Since there were no restrictions on them the Indians had complete freedom. The Indians had been on this path for a long time and thus there was path dependency.  [10]  This means that since the Indians had been traversing this path for a long time taking an alternative path would be difficult and there would be a high price for changing the path. Another definition of path dependency is that which states that history matters and this affects the possible outcomes in future.  [11]  The change in path in future becomes difficult because of the increasing returns or positive feedback  [12]  that is received because it has been being followed for a long period of time by large number of people. With the idea of the British to bring in formal rules and to codify laws there was a shift in the institution from informal to formal. Shift in the criminal sphere was not difficult as criminal law was universal and was to be applied universally on everyone. Warren Hastings agreed with this codification, but objected to the codification of the personal laws of the Indians as he knew it was dangerous and wanted to stay away from it.  [13]  Since the British could not impose their ideology  [14]  Hastings decided that there would be Indian officials like pandits and maulvis who would help the English judges take decision. Since, the English judges were unaware of the Indian jurisprudence, this help by the officials was essential for them to decide upon cases. Reasons leading to shift in institution from informal to formal The court wanted specific solutions to complex issues. The colonizers did not pay any importance to the existing diversity and would ask questions of general rule and the pandits would answer keeping dharma in mind.  [15]  The answers which the British got were never in tandem with the questions asked, as the pandits and maulvis had never faced such a situation before and the answers differed from one pandit to the other; and these answers were then accepted as general rule of law and were imposed upon the people. Different pandits came to different conclusions even when the circumstances were same because they would refer to different texts or scriptures as there was complete freedom to choose the custom that people wanted to. For example if an Englishman would ask how to turn into a Hindu, the method or the procedure told by different pandits would be different as there was no one particular way of doing it. Thus, there was no uniformity. The pandits in India were not an organization like the Pope of the church. The pandits did not interfere in the political sphere at all; unlike the church where the Pope would coronate the King and then only could he rule. There were varied customs prevailing and every pandit would interpret the text in a different way as there was no single interpretation like there was of the Bible. A well trained pandit would be in a position to cite numerous versus on particular topics or only those that made a particular point useful to a specific scenario or indeed he might express his own opinion on the matter  [16]  but these differed greatly from each other. The customs would change from place to place and the British were baffled at this dissimilar existence of customs. Thus, there was no uniformity and certainty in the decisions given by the pandits and the maulvis. This led to a mistrust of them by the British and hence they decided to codify the law. Another reason for codification of the laws were that they believed that there was popular demand for such changes; and the popular demand according to them consisted of group of elite Hindus who were a part of the British administrative structure itself.  [17]   Organizations acting as change agents North in his book also talks about the existence of organizations which are group of individuals bound together for purpose to achieve objectives  [18]  and are created to take advantage of the opportunities  [19]  that the existing institution provides them and then either work within the existing institutions or change and alter the existing institutions, depending on the objective to be achieved; and hence the organizations which are created out of the existing choice set act as major agents of institutional change.  [20]   When the British realized that administration in India was difficult because of the non-existence of any certain law they finally took the bold step of codifying the personal laws as well. Hastings had wanted to stay away from personal laws as he realized that marriage in India was tied to religion and they had decided on staying neutral towards the native religious affairs and secondly because they thought that there interference might lead to communal violence.  [21]  But the assistance of the pandits and maulvis was now looked at with mistrust and thus, Hastings selected 11 pandits to codify laws which would then be followed by everyone. The pandits came up with Vivadarnavasetu which literally means a bridge on the ocean of disputes was the original Sanskrit version. Later on these were translated in English (with which also there were problems which will be dealt ahead) under the name of A Code of Gentoo Laws. The meaning was totally transformed and words like code and law which were never a part of the original text were now legitimized.  [22]  Then again William Jones appointed Jagannath Tarkapanchanan, the legendary scholar on all branches of the Dharmasastras to compile Vivadabhangarnava which literally means a break wave on the oceans of disputes and it was later translated into English under the title A Digest of Hindu Law. Again the importation of British concepts of digest and law were used to legitimize the transformation of the prescriptive guidelines in the Sastras as legal rules to be administered by the court.  [23]   Initially the British gave regard to the customs that were ubiquitous while codifying the laws,  [24]  but even then they realized that there were uncertainties and they could not trust the Indian officials as there was a possibility of them defrauding the company for their own benefits.  [25]  Thus, many English jurists like William Jones, Colebrooke decided to translate the texts into English so that the judges could use it. But the translations were done by European scholars. When translations were done the essential meanings got lost and the entire meaning and its essence could not be understood and translated, as there are certain words the exact word for which might not exist in the other language. For example the word dharma which means the all en-compassing duty to do the right thing at the right time, at any point of ones life, was simply translated as law.  [26]   The English jurists who translated the texts into English were the organization which objected to the existing informal institution. This organization had the common objective (having political control over India) was the ease of administering laws. The goal which the organization sought to achieve of uniformity and stability could not be achieved with the existing institution of informal norms, code of conduct and behavior; they had to get in something more concrete like formal laws so that there could be certainty and uniformity. This organization emerged because of the existing choice set which was available to them because of the informal rules in place and they took advantage of the position that they had attained and acted as change agents or as North would call them entrepreneurs in economic terms and gave India codified laws. Importance of informal norms North in his book also states that move from informal to formal institutions is a slow process.  [27]  Although formal rules may change overnight due to political or judicial decisions, informal constraints embodied in customs are much more impervious to deliberate policies. These cultural constraints not only connect the past with the present and the future, but provide us with a key to explaining the path of historical change.  [28]   In India if we see the move from informal non-codified laws to formal codified laws was a slow process as the British initially tried to administer the informal rules only, but when the result was not to their satisfaction they decided to move towards codified formal rules. But, if seen from another perspective then we see that the change was all of a sudden as the British imposed these codified laws on the Indians when for a long time they had been following a different path altogether. This imposition of the laws on the Indians could not percolate into the society and could not become a part of the society easily as these were imposed from outside and were not from within the society itself and sometimes were not in conformity with the existing norms. Change from informal to formal institution has a cost Transaction Cost Now this institutional change from informal to formal could not be without any cost. There was a cost which the society had to bear, but this cost was not taken into consideration when the organization was taking the decision of altering the institutions according to its own benefit. The cost borne was the change of many customs that were existing, loss of many customs as they were not codified, freezing of identities, creeping in of foreign ideologies and biasness and death of plurality of customs, traditions and indigenous practices. This cost is known as transaction cost as it is the cost of changing the path upon which one has been travelling for a long period of time (non-codified laws) to a new path (codified laws). Transaction cost is a result of the institutional change, but this transaction cost also could have brought in Indians a feeling of unity which had not existed before within a group and also led to the abolishment of many evil practices that were being practiced by the people. Codification of Hindu law was a humongous task because there was no existence of anything called the Hindu law (its existence was presumed by the British keeping in mind the bible which was their source of law) prior to the colonial era, and secondly because what the British mistook to be the source of Hindu law was so vast that they were unable to codify everything as there were various norms being followed in the society which did not come from some ancient scriptures or religious texts. In England there existed a homogenous society with everyone following what the church told them and as already mentioned above the church was an organization and hence their interpretations of the bible (which was the divine source of their law) were also same. So when the English came to India they came with a framework in their mind that, there would be a homogenous society and that this homogenous society would have a divine source of law. But, the British were in for a surprise when they came t o India. They realized that a heterogeneous society with various different practices existed in India and they failed to find a divine source of law; but were adamant on finding a source of law something which was akin to the cannon law and hence in their desperate attempt to find a source, William Jones who was to then translate the sources of law in to English considered Manusmriti which were the Memories of Manu to be the source of law and the translation came to be known as the Institutes of Hindu Law.  [29]  India does not have a cannon law which legitimizes a uniform code for all the diverse groups of the community; but, because of this arbitrariness the British started patronizing education and interpretation of the shastras for their own.  [30]   The British thought that they would derive the law from the texts and scriptures but this task was cumbersome and impractical. They were influenced a lot by the legal theory especially that of Jeremy Bentham.  [31]  Bentham believed in the principle of utilitarianism. Utilitarianism means greatest good for the maximum number of people. In such a scenario it is the minority that is left out and their needs are not taken into consideration; but while codifying these laws the opposite happened. Codification of these laws was done by few pandits who had their own interpretation of the texts and it was done on the demand of a few people with whom the British interacted. Thus, what got codified were just a few traditions and customs and a large number of them were left out and hence got lost. There was strong impact when colonial law encountered the personal law. It led to customs like property rights which are important for the development of any society being substantially altered in Bengal and rights of women to hold property was also substantially changed.  [32]  There were two schools of thought that existed in India Mitakshara and Dayabhag with regards to property rights. Mitakshara was followed everywhere except in Bengal where Dayabhag school of thought was followed. When codification was done by William Jones he was influenced by the Dayabhag School and hence, most of their beliefs got codified and beliefs of the other school were left out leading to the death of many customs. The loss of customs was not only because they were not codified, but also because the judges refused to recognize the existing norms if they did not have any spiritual authority. Customs that the people followed were something which had been developed by the community on their own and h ad no spiritual backing and hence they were considered invalid by the courts. When there was a conflict between customary law and the official law, then the customary law had to be established and then only would the customary law prevail. But the standard set for proving customary law was so high that hardly any law could meet the requirements and slowly all of them withered away.  [33]  The judges also had the power to strike down the law on the basis that they considered it to be against public policy. There was no definition given as to what was against public policy and this gave unfettered power in the hands of the judge to decide which laws were valid and which were against public policy.  [34]   There was freezing of identities as Hindus were now considered to be a larger group of people and were considered to be a community while on the other hand the Muslims were considered outsiders.  [35]  This also happened because in courts the judges had to apply Hindu law to the Hindus and the Muslim laws to the Muslims; so now the people had to decide which religious community they belonged to, whereas initially there was no such pressure on them to identify themselves with a particular religion and were free to choose any custom of any religion they wanted to follow. The translation of the code was done by English jurists who were trained in English laws and customs. So when they translated the law they could not keep aside their biasness and facets of English law crept in. Thus, the new law which came into being comprised of first, the interpretation of the laws by the judges, in the form of case laws acting as precedents and secondly, through codification of the scriptures. T hey also used the principles of justice, equity and good conscience while deciding the cases. This led to the emergence of Anglo Hindu law.  [36]   As Anderson in Islamic Law says  [37]  : the construction of Hindu law in India by the British colonial government [and] the British effort to find Hindu lawà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦assumed that the Hindu law would be found thoughà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦deduction from precedent and a focus on cases. Hindu law gradually came to be based on previous judges decisions, not on Hindu sacred texts. These texts themselves were mistranslated and selected according to the conceptions of English civil law, so that Hindu law was ultimately defined in terms of European conceptions of Hindu law. But the transaction cost borne also helped as this death of plurality led to removal of many practices that were evil and were rampantly practiced in the society. Various acts were passed which made the social condition better, like the Sati regulation of 1829, the Caste Disabilities Removal Act 1850, the Hindu Women Remarriage Act 1856, and Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929. Removal of Sati was an important step as this practice was highly followed in Bengal. Sati was so prevalent in Bengal because they followed the Dayabhag School of thought which gave property rights even to women. These acts helped improve the social conditions in the society at least on paper if not reality, as there is evidence to show that sati was more widely practiced after the regulation that came into being. There were retentionists as well who were unhappy with such codes, and in many areas the customs were not changed in accordance to the code and they still continued; as a stroke of pen cannot comple tely do away with or abolish customs that had been being followed for centuries. This could have brought in more unity as now the Indians had something to identify themselves with, which were common to all the people. North says in his book that the resultant path of institutional change is shaped by:  [38]   The lock in that comes from the symbiotic relationship between institutions and the organizations that have evolved as a consequence of the incentive structure provided by those institutions the new path of codified laws that India started walking on after codification was traversed on for a long time and the path became locked in history and thus, gave India codified laws which exist even today. This codification could only take place because the existing institutions did not provide for the political unity of India which gave British the incentive to codify the laws using their political power; and The feedback process by which human being perceive and react to change in the opportunity set keeping aside the costs borne because of codification, from British point of view this process of institutional change was beneficial as it helped in smoother governance of the country and better control over the people. Bengal as an illustration Now lets look at the existence of this framework through example of Bengal. During this time Bengal comprised of Bihar as well and was named Bengal presidency. The populace of Bihar consisted of Muslims as well and not only Hindus. As already mentioned above there were two schools of thoughts that existed. One was called the Mitakshara which was followed in all parts of India and the second being Dayabhaga which was followed in Bengal only. There was difference in the two Schools because they had different rules which governed them. for example: in Mitakshara the son had an interest in the property as soon as he was born, while in Dayabhaga School the son got the property after the death of the father. According to the Dayabhag School the women had substantial property rights. In some cases they managed the property on behalf of the male members and on other occasions they would hold property in their own name after the death of the husband. During the British era in the 19th century the amount of property that would be held by the women substantially reduced than what is was earlier. Their property was vulnerable to competing claims of the local powerful men. This change also happened because in England the British women did not have property rights and when the British saw this new scene in India while codifying the laws they brought this change and the right of women to hold property was substantially taken away. Warren Hastings had been the governor general of Bengal but towards the end due to financial instability he was replaced by Lord Cornwallis. One central aim of this project was to restore the landlord and property rights that existed a generation before.  [39]  Lord Cornwallis planned to give a constitution which would protect the personal property of the individual and thus help in the prosperity of the state.  [40]  Thus, he created new offices and courts to collect more revenue which was the aim of the British. When the British came to India they came with their English notions of how property was related to politics. So when they came to India lord Cornwallis could not disassociate this notion and believed that there would be the existence of same relation even in Bengal.  [41]   Using their pre-colonial notion of the existing offices and without bothering to understand the existing social institutions they removed Indian officials from important posts and made them mere informants or agents. During Warren Hastings stay he gave importance to the customs and usage of the local area, but when Lord Cornwallis came he thought that the information about the customs could be gained from the inhabitants of the place and thus abolished the office qanungu  [42]  who was the district officer and would be a ready source of information regarding the existing customs. But Lord Cornwallis removed the office thinking that the post had deep rooted immersion in the historical continuities of a particular society made them easily corrupt and there were chances of them defrauding the Company with the landlords.  [43]   This essentially happened because the British wanted to maintain their supremacy and did not want to lose their political power in India, but while being insecure about the hold of power politically they forgot to give due importance to the existing social institutions which would have made their rule easy. The constitution given by Lord Cornwallis had a paradox.  [44]  It was based on the Burkean philosophies of trust and customary practice, but sadly, when it came to Bengal both were nonexistent as there was severance and a distance existed between the world of government and the relations it governed.  [45]   The judges in the court had officials that would assist them, but then the British started mistrusting these officials who were either pandits or maulvis. Thus William Jones wanted a text which could help the judges decide cases and their dependence on these officials reduced. The book was a translation of Sanskrit commentaries on contracts, property and inheritance laws written by Jagannatha Tarkapanchanam who was the most respected jurist in India in the 18th century. This Digest was not to codify the laws but to compile all the usage so that administration would be easy and not an attempt to codify laws. The text was meant to supplement the decision taken by th